In African societies, the relationship between masculinity and feminism has long been contentious, especially due to the strict and definitive cultural gender roles.[1] A feminist is seen as a secularist woman who has an uttermost deep-seated hatred towards men and plans on staying single.[2] As Chimamanda puts it: “[Y]ou hate men, you hate bras, you hate African culture, you think women should always be in charge, you don’t shave, you’re always angry, you don’t have a sense of humour, you don’t use deodorant”.[3] Feminism, in the eyes of society, is often misunderstood as a movement that hates men and threatens masculinity.[4] Meanwhile, the law plays a crucial role in either upholding or challenging these societal norms. This article explores whether an African man can be a feminist by examining perceptions of masculinity, legal reforms, and the evolving role of men in gender equality.
Perceptions of masculinity
What makes a man masculine? When answering this question, many would stick to the traditional version of masculinity-hegemonic masculinity.[5] This perception of masculinity is characterised by aggression, heterosexuality and toughness.[6] It is associated with the subordination of women and other masculinities in order to prove their masculinity.[7]
In traditional African societies, masculinity was associated with strength, leadership and dominance. For example, in the Gikuyu community in Kenya, one way to affirm masculinity was by undergoing the initiation ceremony.[8] This was a prerequisite condition that ultimately conferred them the esteemed status of a warrior.[9] In fact, an uncircumcised man was seen as a weakling who was incapable of going to war and was denied some privileges conferred to circumcised men such as not having a circumcised man as a close ally.[10]
A man was seen as a leader and a protector. For example, the Gikuyu men led their homes and the community at large.[11] Men were supposed to be courageous which, in most African societies, was demonstrated during initiation ceremonies. This was attributed to the fact that they would be warriors and future leaders of the society. In Mali, even after the deportation, a man had to portray courage and provide despite the hardships he encountered.[12] The derogatory term fan den sago, meaning the end of one’s will, would be used to diminish one’s masculinity completely.[13]
Women on the other hand were assigned roles such as religious and economic roles. In Southwest Nigeria, the late Susan Wenger, a woman, was an important religious person.[14] The Yoruba women dominated the economy as they actively engaged in economic activities such as the distribution and sale of agricultural goods.[15] As children were cherished in traditional African society, motherhood was inherently valued and respected.[16] Due to this, domestic roles were consequently assigned to women. A woman had to take care of the household and the children.
After colonisation, these gender disparities widened significantly, elevating the place of a man.[17] In Nigeria for example, the man is seen as superior while the place of a woman is confined to domestic roles characterised by the saying that a woman’s place is “traditionally believed to be in the kitchen”.[18]
These disparities have shaped modern society, resulting in a more extreme version of hegemonic masculinity, hyper masculinity. Men who fall under this form of masculinity often express themselves in a violent and aggressive manner and should at all times be fearless and courageous.[19] Phrases such as ‘you should act like a man’ or ‘men should not show emotions’ are often used, supporting the expectation that men should always show courage in order to prove their masculinity.[20] Activities such as binge drinking, engaging in dangerous activities or sports, and being physically fit, among others, are associated with being manly and masculine.
This is the new norm in the society as men are subjected to a stricter version of the traditional masculinity by not only men themselves but also women. Isaac Dery in his journal, ‘A situated, African understanding of African feminism for men: a Ghanaian narrative’ gives his lived experience. He highlights how men were raised to be husbands, leaders and providers while women were taught to be submissive, dependent and taught good wifely practices, shaping their societal legitimacy as feminine and masculine people.[21] In such a societal context, it becomes quite common for women to perpetuate such forms of masculinity.
Such dynamics are also depicted in modern films where the male character has all the typical characteristics that a masculine man should have. A great example would be Vin Diesel in Fast and Furious. He embodies the traditional masculine ideal as he is portrayed to be physically fit, engages in exciting, dangerous street races, and does not show his emotions.[22] All hyped up and glorified by both men and women. His physical dominance and emotional restraint reinforces the cultural realities that equate men to masculinity.
A more popular and widely recognised term related to hyper masculinity is toxic masculinity. This is a more extreme version of hegemonic masculinity mostly linked with acts of violence, aggression, domination, and homophobia aimed at women and gender non-conforming men.[23] It is closely linked to malignant sexism, a radical level of sexism that aims at asserting dominance at the expense of women through a myriad of ways such as sexual coercion.[24]
Toxic masculinity often views homosexuality as being inherently associated with femininity.[25] Fearing homophobia, backlash, and the extreme methods that toxic men have used to ‘punish’ homosexuals such as sodomy, men have felt the need to go to extreme lengths to prove themselves. Acts such as gang rape have been attributed to toxic masculinity.[26] This version of masculinity is harmful as it has negative effects on society, especially on women.
Feminism and the Law
The feminist movement at its very core champions for the equal rights of the sexes. Feminism in the West began as a movement that questioned the patriarchal structure and sought the equality of sexes through inclusion of a woman in the various spheres of the society.[27] This movement has played a significant role in advocating for the promotion of gender equality in work spaces, property ownership and political representation. Various legislations have been enacted in continuing these feminist ideas in Africa. The Kenyan constitution for example, has progressively realised this, by enshrining gender equality as a fundamental right.[28] Rwanda has also enacted a comprehensive legal framework aimed at combating gender based violence, which included strict penalties for offenders.[29]
However, a major and prevalent theory even in modern society is that feminism serves as a cover blanket for all issues related to women.[30] The feminist movement, even in Africa, has always put women in the forefront and attributing some of the violence issues to men.[31] The women’s movement advocates for the inclusion of women's rights and freedoms, while the feminist movement is more concerned with issues such as family, gender, and religion, among others.[32]
Rethinking the role of an African man in feminism
Can an African be a feminist? The answer lies in the perception of masculinity and feminism in Africa. Feminism is more often than not understood as a thing from the West.[33] This is quite ironic given that colonialists played a key role in perpetuating toxic and hyper masculinity in Africa.[34] While it may be true that feminism sprung from the West, utterly disregarding it on this basis would be quite hypocritical to Africans.[35] It is also viewed as a threat to men and their masculinity.[36]
Our behavioural attitudes and views on feminism and masculinity should evolve. The common assumption among most African men is that everything is fine as gender equality has been addressed in the law for example, the Maputo Protocol recognising equal status in marriage.[37] Well, it would seem more fitting for feminists to address their issues through the human rights approach as women’s rights are enshrined in the human rights framework. However, Chimamanda argues that the problem with this approach is that human rights does not explain the historical and lived gender imbalance, especially women.[38]
We should try to embrace the new norms in concepts such as gender, power, violence, and sexuality.[39] A great way to start would be how we raise our children. Unfortunately, women have also played a role in perpetuating hyper masculinity as they reinforce such norms and behaviours. For example, raising men to be fearless and not show emotions.[40] Limiting men to this small, definitive and unrealistic cocoon of who men should be, is a hindrance to the achievement of gender equality. This creates a certain societal pressure in men, resulting in various consequences such as engagement in extreme risky activities in order to prove their masculinity.[41]
Malvern Chiweshe in his journal, African men and feminism: Reflections on using African feminism in research, gives his journey in conducting a PhD study about abortion. This raised a lot of concerns as he was an African man writing about such a sensitive topic.[42] He was discouraged as his unique approach of a man studying and writing women issues was against the norm.[43] However, it was during his research that he questioned his male privilege. He was also able to interact with Tamale’s work on African Sexualities that enabled him to understand the African woman through the feminist lens.[44] Using the African feminist theory, he was able to understand the double bind experienced by women, where both unintended pregnancies and abortion were viewed as shameful resulting in stigma and regulation of women’s reproductive choices.[45]
His experience encourages his talk about the role of men in African feminism.[46] He states that the term feminist is better suited to women as they challenge the male domination within society.[47] He instead advocates for the term ‘pro-feminist’ for the men where they use feminist ideologies and actively aid in dismantling and challenging the patriarchal system.[48]
In conclusion, African men have a choice in embracing feminism to ensure the equality of the sexes in society. The law has already set the pace and is making quite the progress in positive realisation of sex and gender equality. So can an African man be a feminist? In agreement with Malvern, men can indeed be feminists or as he terms it pro-feminists, if only they understand that feminism does not only champion for women but men as well in a manner that benefits the society at large.
[1] Isaac Dery, ‘A situated, African understanding of African feminism for men: a Ghanaian narrative’ 27(12) Gender, Place and Culture, A Journal of Feminist Geography (2020) 1755.
[2] Naomi N Nkealah, ‘Conceptualizing feminism(s) in Africa: The challenges facing African women writers and critics’ 23(1) A Journal of English studies, 134.
[3] Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, We should all be feminists, Fourth Estate, 2014.
[4] Toril Moi,’ “I am not a feminist, but…”: How feminism became the f-word’ 121(5), Modern Language Association, 2006, 1736.
[5] Ann C McGinley, ‘Introduction: Men, masculinities, and law: A symposium on multidimensional masculinities theory’ 12(34), University of Nevada, Las Vegas-William S Boyd school of law (2013) 316.
[6] Monument Thulani Bongani Makhanya, ‘Causes and consequences of toxic masculinity: can he for she be a solution for gender-based violence?’ in Feyza Bhatti and Elham Taheri (eds) Gender Inequality-Issues, Challenges and new perspectives, Intechopen Book Series, Sustainable Development Volume 15, 235.
[7] McGinley, ‘Introduction: Men, masculinities, and law’ 316.
[8] Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya: The tribal life of the Gikuyu, Mercury Books London, 1965, 133.
[9] Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 198.
[10] Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 107.
[11] Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 8-9.
[12] Suzanne U Schultz, ‘It’s not easy. Everyday suffering, hard work and courage. Navigating masculinities post deportation in Mali’ 28(6) Tandfonline.com, 2021, 878-879.
[13] Schultz, ‘It’s not easy’ 877.
[14] Chinyere Ukpokolo, ‘Gender and African cultures’ in MO Muritala and OC Adesina (eds) African Cultures and Civilisation, Ibadan University Press, 2019, 182.
[15] Ukpokolo, ‘Gender and African cultures’ 183-184.
[16] Ukpokolo, ‘Gender and African cultures’ 182.
[17] Kwadwo A Okrah, ‘The dynamics of gender roles and cultural determinants of African women’s desire to participate in modern politics’ 2(1) Global Engagement and Transformation, 2017, 4.
[18] Taiwo Ajala, ‘Social construction of gender roles and women’s poverty in African societies: the case of the Nigerian woman’ 4(2) American Research institute for Policy Development (2016), 6.
[19] Makhanya, ‘Causes and consequences of masculinity’ 236.
[20] John M Kang, ‘Does manly courage exist?’ Heinonline.com, 2012, 467.
[21] Isaac Dery, ‘A situated, African understanding of African feminism for men’ 1754.
[22] Fast and Furious, 2009, 43:38 to 44:53.
[23] Carol Harrington, ‘What is “toxic masculinity” and why does it matter?’ 24(2) Men and masculinities (2021) 7.
[24] Ali A Mazrui, ‘The black woman and the problem of gender: An African perspective’ 24(1) Indiana university press (1994) 92.
[25] Makhanya, ‘Causes and consequences of masculinity’, 240.
[26] McGinley, ‘Introduction: Men, masculinities, and law’ 316.
[27] Javeed Ahmad Raina, ‘Feminism: An overview’ 4(13) International Journal of Research (2017) 3375.
[28] Constitution of Kenya (2010), article 27(3).
[29] Law on Prevention and Punishment of Gender-based Violence, Law 59 0f 2008, section 2.
[30] Nanjala Nyabola, ‘African feminisms as method: A methodology for African feminisms in the digital era’ 5(2) Feministafrica.com, 95.
[31] Isaac Dery, ‘A situated, African understanding of African feminism for men.’ 1748.
[32] Sylvia Tamale, ‘Rethinking African feminisms in the “new” normal’ feministafrica.com, 3.
[33] Ukpokolo, ‘Gender and African cultures’ 185.
[34] Ukpokolo, ‘Gender and African cultures’ 188.
[35] Nkealah, ‘Conceptualizing feminism(s) in Africa’ 137.
[36] Chimamanda, We should all be feminists.
[37] Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa(Maputo Protocol), 11 July 2003, article 6.
[38] Chimamanda, We should all be feminists.
[39] Tamale, ‘Rethinking African feminisms in the “new” normal’ 9.
[40] Chimamanda, We should all be feminists.
[41] Makhanya, ‘Causes and consequences of masculinity’ 240.
[42] Malvern Chiweshe, ‘African men and feminism: Reflections on using African feminism in research’ 32(2) Agenda, empowering women for gender equity, 2018, 77.
[43] Chiweshe, ‘African men and feminism’ 78.
[44] Chiweshe, ‘African men and feminism’ 79.
[45] Chiweshe, ‘African men and feminism’ 79.
[46]Chiweshe, ‘African men and feminism’ 80.
[47] Chiweshe, ‘African men and feminism’ 80.
[48] Chiweshe, ‘African men and feminism’ 81.
